March, 2023

Secret agrarian societies in Ireland date back to the 1760’s when the Whiteboy movement started in Tipperary. Whiteboys were a form of rural vigilantism to fight against tithes or the enclosing of common land. Sometimes they were referred to as Levellers because they levelled fences or ditches enclosing land. (James S. Donnelly (1977-1978) “The Whiteboy Movement, 1761-5.” Irish Historical Studies, p. 21). Between 1760 and the Famine in 1845 there were outbreaks of rural violence in Ireland. Other groups developed including: the Threshers, Carders, Rockites, and Whitefeet. The most common agrarian crime committed by these groups was the anonymous notice or threatening letter (S.R. Gibbons, (1982) Rockites and Whitefeet: Irish Peasant Secret Societies, 1800-1845 (University of Southhampton, Doctoral Thesis)).

Threatening Letters

S. R. Gibbons examined 500 threatening letters and concluded that these groups were concerned with five primary issues.

The first issue concerned land, especially conacre, the availability of tenancies, rents and wages. Conacre was the letting of a small piece of land for the growing of a specific crop. Usually, the crop was potatoes. No relationship developed between the landlord, middleman or grower under conacre.

The second issue concerned efforts to regulate local employment and necessities. Thus, threatening letters were used to maintain employment, to procure the dismissal of “stranger labourers”, to regulate the prices of basic commodities and to prevent the export of food from the immediate locality.

The third issue the secret societies sought to control were the tithe valuations and the elimination of proctors. The tithes were taxes imposed for the support of the Church of Ireland. Eventually, the secret societies sought to abolish the tithe.

The fourth issue concerned the condemnation of Protestants and Orangemen.

The fifth issue the secret societies sought to influence in their threatening letters and notices concerned legal and political issues, including distraint, the police and the obtaining of arms. (Gibbons (1982) Rockites and Whitefeet: Irish Peasant Secret Societies, 1800-1845). Distraint was the legal mechanism where a landlord could have the personal property of his tenant seized for the payment of rent arrears.  Animals or crops were often seized and then sold.

Growth and Membership of the Secret Societies

The growth of such societies was fuelled by the end of the Napoleonic Wars when the price of crops plummeted and grazing became more lucrative than tillage. In order to survive many Irish men resisted by joining secret societies and violence often followed.  It has been opined that membership of the secret agrarian societies depended on whether disturbances took place during the period of prosperity when the landless revolted or during depressions when substantial farmers joined (James S. Connelly, Jr., (1983) “The Social Composition of Agrarian Rebellions in the Early 19^th Century Ireland: The Case of the Carders and Caravats, 1813-1816” in Radical, Rebels & Establishments (Corish ed.) 151-170 Maynooth: Appletree. p.  154-155). Thus, at various times different classes joined the secret societies.

Glenmore Whitefeet Letters & Notices

Below are copies of threatening letters or posters that were placed in or around Glenmore primarily in the 1830’s.

The oldest reference to a secret society operating in Glenmore, then referred to as Glanmore, was published in June 1777. “On the 9^th ult. After sunset, upwards of 300 of those lawless miscreants, called White Boys, assembled on the High Road, leading from Ross to Waterford, in Ireland, near the lands of Glanmore, and, without the least provocation, beat and wounded in a cruel and barbarous manner, Mr. W. Innes, of Rathpatrick, in the County of Kilkenny. In consequence of which, the principal neighbouring gentlemen have offered a spirited reward, for apprehending, and prosecuting to conviction, the persons concerned therein” (Northampton Mercury, Mon. 16 June 1777, p. 3).

In December 1831 the Tithe War resulted in the killing of 14 police at the townland of Carrickshock in Co. Kilkenny. [For further details regarding the Tithe, see Stephen McCormack (2005) “The Tithe War: Reports by Church of Ireland Clergy to Dublin Castle,” 4(13) History of Ireland.   See our post of 20 Sept. 2020 regarding Glenmore and the Tithe Tax.]

Within a month of Carrickshock notices regarding Whitefeet threats made in or around Glenmore began to appear and were reported widely in newspapers.

1832

The Waterford Mail (Sat. 3 Nov. 1832, p. 3) published copies of two notices posted on the chapel doors of Glanmore.

“Take notice, Mr. Strange of Elwardstown (sic) not sell or bestow the value of one penny to the Police of Glanmore or else if you do, quit this land—Written by the Gentlemen regulators of Ireland. I hope you all will take notice by this, let no person take down this notice.”

“Take notice any person or persons that will sell or bestow to the value of one penny to the Police of Glanmore, or else if you do ye will be condemned to ashes both yourself and your property it is written by the grate (sic) and worthy regulators of Ireland.”

Laurence Strange, Esq., of Aylwardstown, held a lease from the Earl of Bessborough. The 1833 Griffith’s Valuation provides that Strange farmed 63 acres and was landlord to 252 acres. Thus, Laurence Strange was the landlord of the townland although he was not the owner of the land.

[Updated 8 Oct. 2025] In October 1832, “the house of Patrick Fitzgerald, of Weatherstown, near Rosbercon, was attacked on Wednesday night by an armed party of Whitefeet, who broke in his door and robbed him of a gun. They fired several shots into the house” [Dublin Evening Packet & Correspondent, Sat. 13 Oct. 1832, p. 3].

Patrick Fitzgerald of Weatherstown continued to be attacked. The following month, “on Sat. night a cow, the property of Patrick Fitzgerald, of Weatherstown, near Ross, was hanged in consequence, it is supposed, of his taking land about 18 months back (Wexford Conservative, Sat. 17 Nov. 1832, p. 1). Other newspapers stated that the cow was haughed.

“The houses of Laurence Sullivan, of Ballybrahy, and Martin Holden, of Annis, in the above neighbourhood, were visited by parties of Whitefeet on Saturday night who robbed them of fire arms. They fired several shots but did no injury to any of the inmates” (Wexford Conservative, Sat. 17 Nov. 1832, p. 1).

1833

The Chutes Western Herald (Thurs. 7 Feb. 1833, p. 3) published citing “From the Kilkenny Moderator of Saturday—Six armed men entered the house of Patrick Fitzgerald, of Aywardstown in the Barony of Ida, on the night of Sunday last, and threatened him with instant death if he attempted to prosecute James Cleary at the ensuing assizes. Cleary compelled him some time since to pay £5 5s., for which he gave a docket of protection, which he told Fitzgerald would save him from any future attack from the Whitefeet.”

In the 1833 Griffith’s Valuation Pat Fitzgerald, of Aylwardstown, farmed 12 acres. Given the extortion and threats of violence it was surprising to find the following article in the Morning Advertser (Thurs. 14 February 1833, p. 1) where the priests induced the Glenmore parishioners to surrender their arms.

“Surrender of arms by the Peasantry—you will be gratified to learn that the deluded people in the county of Kilkenny are at length delivering up their arms. In the parish of Glanmore in that county, no less than 20 stand of arms have been given up to the Catholic clergy within the last few days. One of those clergymen communicated the fact to J. Esmond, Esq, a Magistrate of the county of Kilkenny, requesting that he should take charge of the arms. Mr. Esmond readily acquiesced, and had them forwarded to Waterford, where they were lodged by his direction on Friday.”

At the beginning of March 1833 the Leinster Express (Sat. 2 March 1833, p. 4) published several notices or threats posted across the region including:

“A Whitefoot Notice was lately posted up in the neighbourhood of Glanmore, ordering the people of the County of Waterford to desist from working at the farm of Glinn of  Shambough. If they attempted to go there again the notice stated that they would be shot.”

Later that month, Glenmore was propelled into the news with the murder of a Catholic landlord of Shanbogh, Anthony Joseph Leonard, Esq., on the hill of Glenmore by three of his tenants. See our previous post of 9 Feb. 2020.

The Chutes Western Herald (Mon. 7 Oct. 1833, p. 4) referenced the Kilkenny Moderator as its source for the following threats with multiple men named and threatened.

“The following is the copy of an illegal notice posted on the chapel of Mullinaharrible, in the parish of Listerlin and barony of Ida, on Sunday last: “All such land jobbers as gave up the ground and began to till it again will be sorry; it happen them more than Marum or Joyce. We neither hough cattle or burn houses, to destroy the country as we did before. No sheet iron inside the doors will not prevent us, but we will go and drop them on the spot. Phelan, Philip Malone, Trasey, Forestal, and Kerewan, so prepare, the long nights are coming. Let the parish see we are neither afraid of informers or pointers. Such as will visit you will have no  informers or pointers. There is a great deal that we did not mention that will suffer as well as the rest.”

On the night of the 10^th of October, “the dairies of Patrick Fitzgerald, James Malone, and Thomas Keeffe, all of Weatherstown, in the Barony of Ida, were feloniously broken open by some evil disposed persons in search of plunder. A quantity of butter in firkins was taken out of Fitzgerald’s dairy, but nothing was found in either of the others worth removing (Kilkenny Moderator, Wed. 16 Oct. 1833, p. 3). Unusually the break-ins and theft were not associated by the newspaper with the local Whitefeet although Patrick Fitzgerald, of Weatherstown, was targeted several times by the Whitefeet.

1834

The Waterford Mirror (13 Jan. 1834) published in its column on Whitefeet  activity in Co. Kilkenny the following: “All gates of Bawnjames, a farm belonging to Mr. Magrath of  Rosbercon, in the Barony of Ida, was maliciously broken and destroyed on the night of Sunday last.”

Toward the end of the month, the Kilkenny Moderator (Sat. 25 January 1834, p. 2) reported: “A few nights since the windows of Michael Rigby’s dwelling house at Ballyvera, in the parish of Glanmore were maliciously broken and a stone flung into his bedroom. Rigby says he is not aware of having done anything to cause this attack on his house.”

Seven years later Michael Rigby (c. 1791-1841) was murdered by one of his Ballyveria neighbours as the men were walking to attend Stations in the Glenmore Chapel. The murder was committed over two fields. See, our post of 18 July 2021 regarding the murder.   

The following notice was published in the Belfast Commercial Chronicle (Sat. 29 March 1834, p. 4). “From the Kilkenny Moderator—on Sunday night last a Rockite Notice was posted upon the chapel of Glanmore, barony of Ida, threatening death to any person who would dare, after that notice, to take possession of the land Graignakilla (sic) in the above neighbourhood.

Describing the conditions in Kilkenny and Cork as approaching a Civil War, Bell’s Life in London and Sporting Chronicle (Sun. 23 Nov. 1834, p. 1) published the following article that highlighted Patrick Kennedy of Robinstown, Glenmore.

“The police of the County of Kilkenny have, ever since the unfortunate affair of Carrickshaugh (sic) been marked objects of antipathy to the peasanty, who have never hesitated to manifest their feeling (whenever a safe opportunity occurred) in insult, or even personal outrage. But of late a more systematic proceeding has been observed in the warfare carried on by the peasantry again the unpopular police force. Although the police were feared in the open field, they were not treated with the least appearance of respect  by the multitude with whom they come into contact at fairs, markets, races etc.“

“In the Barony of Glanmore the spirit of defiance is progressing in a very marked manner, and the police now think it prudent not to interfere in what are very properly termed its ‘Whiskey fights’ wherein their interposition has generally had the effect of adding fuel to fire. About two months ago it was observed that there was a disinclination  to provide the constabulary with country provisions, and instead of any thing like a competition for the supply of the canteen in the neighburhood, there was, on the contrary, a marked ill will towards any who undertook such contracts.”

“One of these, Mr. Patrick Kennedy residing at Robinstown, in the barony of Ida, who was hardy enough to undertake to supply the Glanmore police with milk, found a threatening Whitefoot notice nailed on his door, warning him of the consequence if he persevered in this “disloyal” contract. He did persevere, confiding in the protection of the police; nearly two months elapsed, and he thought himself forgotten by the midnight legislators, but on Monday night last he was reminded of their existence by finding a valuable colt houghed in his stable.”

“In Cork the peasantry have refused to work for landlords who have made themselves ‘marked men’ The Cork papers relate the case of one of these proprietors who for some time past found it impossible to hire labourers.” When it was time to dig potatoes near Dunamanway the landlord was told to dig the potatoes himself or get Orange Protestants to do it for him. A group in Dumanway, “including some respectable shop keepers, arrived and in a few hours of work dug and picked up the  potatoes. The group attempted to engage some Catholic labourers to assist, but as soon as the Catholic labourers learned where they were to work, they refused notwithstanding the fact that they were offered double wages for the day. As the Orange group started home they were ‘hissed and hooted…’”

1835

Notwithstanding the efforts of the Glenmore priests in 1833 parishioners continued to have arms. The following article appeared in the Carlow Sentinel (Sat. 23 May 1835, p. 1).

“Six persons were convicted at the Petty Sessions of Rosbercon, on Saturday last, before Colonel Osborne, R.M. and Mr. Keogh, the sitting Magistrates, for having unregistered arms in their possession. The Police found in their houses, in the neighbourhood of Listerlin and of Glanmore—6 guns, 1 pistol, 1 blunderbuss barrel, 1 sword cane, 1 pike, besides 6 powder horns, some bullets and slugs.”

Glenmore Oral Tradition of Whitefeet

Thanks to Danny Dowling (1927-2021) we know the identify of two of the leaders of the local Whitefeet as well as where they met. Danny interviewed Nicky “the Miller” Forristal (1888-1979) in 1955. Nicky identified the leaders of the Whitefeet in the Glenmore area as Captains Starlight and Lusty.

Nicky related that Captain Starlight was a Malone and the family bore the nickname of Spur. They lived in a small cabin which was situated under the road leading to Forristalstown from the Mill Cross Road at a point alongside the path which Tom Walsh used as a  shortcut to Forristalstown.

Captain Lusty was a Purcell and lived in a small house in Forristalstown on the bounds of Ballyverneen. Billy Tománsín of Killivory, Glenmore was a descendent of his.

Before their nightly escapades they used drink with their men in a shebeen in Ballygurrum which was kept by one Billy Walsh nicknamed Billy Buíde. According to Nicholas Forristal the Billy Buíde was a grandfather to the present Henry Doolan’s wife of Shanbough.

The following rhymes were written about the two Whitefeet Captains.

Here’s a health to Billy Buíde
And may he long reign.
We’ll call for spring water,
And he’ll bring us brown ale,
To strengthen our bones and
Put speed in our feet,
To make us well able to whale the police.

Are you in bed Captain Lusty?
And he answered us no.
Are you in bed Captain Starlight,
And he answered also.

Billy Buíde’s house at Ballygurrim cross was later occupied by Dick Cahill.

Interview of Wattie Power (c. 1888-1961) of Jamestown, Glenmore

Also in 1955 Danny Dowling interviewed his Jamestown neighbour Wattie Power and recorded the following regarding the Glenmore Whitefeet.

“The following is verse in connection with the Whitefeet which body was active in this area in the first half of the last century, and also in part of the previous century. Four verses is all Wattie could remember.”

“The Whitefeet and Blackfeet were crossing a bog,
As tired and as weary as any mad dog.

Says one to the other if we were at home,
T’would be the best of our play to leave the Whitefeet alone.

Long life to Pol Cahill and long may she reign,
When we called for spring water, she brought us down cream.

To put strength in our body and speed in our feet,
And make us well able to chase the police.”

See our post of 23 Sept 2020 for the Glenmore Version of the Ballad of Carrickshock.

The featured drawing is from sheet music, The Irish Peasant (Ireland 1800-1870) © Trustees Indiana University http://purl.dlib.indiana.edu/iudl/lilly/starr/LL-SSM-2-136-0014. The drawing of the midnight raiders was drawn by an artist for The Graphic (Sat. 14 Jan. 1882, p. 8) (c) Illustrated London News Group, Courtesy of British Library Board. The owners of the goats related that they evicted a tenant and later their goats were slaughtered in the middle of the night.

Please send any corrections or further information to glenmore.history@gmail.com.

Dr. Kathleen Moore Walsh